Rapid urbanization and the expansion of metropolitan peripheral areas, particularly in pilgrimage cities, have intensified spatial inequalities, capital concentration, and unequal access to urban services and facilities among different social groups. These conditions highlight the necessity of examining the realization of the “right to the city” and analyzing the relationship between spatial development, urban governance, and social justice. The present study aimed to critically analyze the realization of the right to the city in the metropolis of Mashhad and to investigate citizens’ perceptions regarding equal access, active participation, and social security. The research employed a mixed-methods approach with an exploratory–explanatory design. Data collection included 18 semi-structured interviews with urban management experts and 398 completed questionnaires from citizens over the age of 18, selected through stratified random sampling. The data were processed using descriptive and analytical methods, and Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) was applied to examine the direct and indirect effects of urban governance, spatial justice, and social security on the experience of the right to the city. The findings indicated that citizens’ perceptions of the realization of the right to the city were at a moderate to high level. Urban governance had the strongest direct effect on the experience of the right to the city and played a significant mediating role in strengthening the effects of spatial justice and social security. Furthermore, spatial justice and social security demonstrated independent, positive, and significant effects, particularly in terms of balanced access to public spaces, equality in service provision, and the sense of safety. Overall, the findings suggest that urban governance plays a key mediating role.

The notion of the right to the city emphasizes that urban spaces should not only serve as engines for economic growth and infrastructural expansion but also prioritize social inclusion, equity, and participatory governance. In other words, cities must ensure that all residents, regardless of their socio-economic background, have genuine opportunities to access essential services, engage in decision-making processes, and live in environments that are safe, secure, and conducive to their well-being. By linking urban development with principles of justice and inclusivity, scholars and policymakers can better understand how spatial planning, governance strategies, and social policies interact to shape the lived experiences of urban residents. This approach provides a framework for analyzing both the successes and shortcomings of urban governance systems, highlighting areas where policy interventions may be required to reduce inequalities and promote more inclusive urban futures. Moreover, investigating the interplay between spatial development and social equity offers practical insights for urban planners, local authorities, and community organizations seeking to implement strategies that ensure sustainable growth while safeguarding the rights and dignity of all citizens.

The present study was designed to critically examine the realization of the right to the city in the metropolis of Mashhad, one of the most prominent pilgrimage cities in the region and a key cultural, religious, and economic hub. Mashhad’s rapid urban expansion, coupled with its distinctive socio-cultural significance, creates a context in which spatial inequalities, governance challenges, and social disparities are particularly visible and pronounced. The city’s population growth, driven both by permanent residents and seasonal influxes of pilgrims, has intensified demands on housing, public transportation, sanitation, and urban services. As a result, some neighborhoods and social groups face limited access to essential facilities, while other areas benefit from disproportionate investment and infrastructure development. This uneven pattern of urban growth makes Mashhad an important case for understanding the practical implementation of the right to the city, providing insights that may be applicable to other fast-growing, culturally significant urban centers.

Specifically, this study focused on exploring residents’ perceptions regarding three key dimensions of the right to the city. The first dimension is equitable access to urban services and public spaces, which examines whether all social groups can utilize facilities such as parks, healthcare centers, educational institutions, and transportation networks without facing systemic barriers. The second dimension concerns opportunities for active participation in urban governance, highlighting the degree to which citizens can engage in decision-making processes, influence planning initiatives, and voice concerns that affect their neighborhoods and daily lives. The third dimension involves social security measures, encompassing the safety, welfare, and inclusivity of urban environments, including access to social support systems, protection from physical and environmental hazards, and mechanisms that ensure basic human dignity. By investigating these three interrelated dimensions, the research aims to provide a holistic understanding of how urban justice is perceived and experienced by residents in Mashhad, shedding light on gaps between theoretical concepts and the lived realities of urban life.

By emphasizing residents’ lived experiences, perceptions, and interactions with urban systems, this study bridges the gap between abstract theoretical frameworks of urban justice and the tangible realities of metropolitan growth and governance. It underscores the importance of participatory planning, inclusive policy-making, and equitable resource allocation as fundamental components of sustainable and just urban development. Furthermore, the findings contribute to broader discussions about the challenges faced by pilgrimage cities, where religious tourism, rapid population growth, and socio-economic diversity intersect to create unique pressures on urban infrastructure and governance systems. In conclusion, the study offers valuable insights for scholars, urban planners, and policymakers committed to fostering cities that are not only economically prosperous and well-organized but also socially inclusive, equitable, and responsive to the needs and rights of all residents. By critically analyzing Mashhad as a case study, this research highlights the necessity of integrating principles of the right to the city into practical urban governance strategies, ultimately aiming to support more just, participatory, and sustainable metropolitan environments.